During a talmudic discussion of the havdalah (separation) ceremony that concludes the Sabbath, we read the following:
פסחים קה, א
דְּתָנָא מִשְּׁמֵיהּ דְּרַבִּי עֲקִיבָא: כׇּל הַטּוֹעֵם כְּלוּם קוֹדֶם שֶׁיַּבְדִּיל — מִיתָתוֹ בְּאַסְכָּרָה
It was taught in the name of Rabbi Akiva that whoever tastes anything before he recites havdalah, will die from askara.
In explaining the reason why this form of death is an appropriate punishment, Tosafot (a medieval collection of commentaries on the Talmud) makes this observation:
ומיתתו באסכרה מדה כנגד מדה הוא משביע גרונו יחנק
He will die from askara because it is measure for measure: He satisfied his throat [inappropriately] and so he will choke…
So askara has something to do with choking. The question we will address is what, precisely, is the condition known as askera?
Askara is discussed elsewhere in the Talmud. For example there is this passage, about which form of death is the most painful:
ברכות ח,א
Roz Chast. The New Yorker, August 6, 2001
תַּנְיָא נָמֵי הָכִי: תְּשַׁע מֵאוֹת וּשְׁלֹשָׁה מִינֵי מִיתָה נִבְרְאוּ בָּעוֹלָם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״לַמָּוֶת תּוֹצָאוֹת״, ״תּוֹצָאוֹת״ בְּגִימַטְרִיָּא הָכִי הָווּ. קָשָׁה שֶׁבְּכֻלָּן — אַסְכָּרָא, נִיחָא שֶׁבְּכֻלָּן — נְשִׁיקָה. אַסְכָּרָא דָּמְיָא כְּחִיזְרָא בִּגְבָבָא דְעַמְרָא דִּלְאַחוֹרֵי נַשְׁרָא, וְאִיכָּא דְאָמְרִי כְּפִיטּוּרֵי בְּפִי וֶשֶׁט, נְשִׁיקָה דָּמְיָא כְּמִשְׁחַל בִּנִיתָא מֵחֲלָבָא
It was also taught in a baraita: Nine hundred and three types of death were created in the world, as it is stated: “Issues [totzaot] of death,” and that, 903, is the numerical value [gimatriya] of totzaot. The most difficult of all these types of death is croup [askara], while the easiest is the kiss of death. Croup is like a thorn entangled in a wool fleece, which, when pulled out backwards, tears the wool. Some say that croup is like ropes at the entrance to the esophagus, which would be nearly impossible to insert and excruciating to remove. The kiss of death is like drawing a hair from milk. One should pray that he does not die a painful death.
The Koren Talmud cited above, translates askera as croup. So does the Soncino Talmud, both presumably following Marcus Jastrow’s dictionary which translates it as “choking or croup.” Jastrow cites Psalm 63:12, where another form of the work (yisoker) is used:
וְהַמֶּלֶךְ יִשְׂמַח בֵּאלֹהִים יִתְהַלֵּל כָּל־הַנִּשְׁבָּע בּוֹ כִּי יִסָּכֵר פִּי דוֹבְרֵי־שָׁקֶר׃
But the king shall rejoice in God; all who swear by Him shall exult, when the mouth of liars is stopped.
However the Schottenstein English (and Hebrew) Talmud leave the term untranslated, and note in a footnote that “Askara is identified with diphtheria, a disease that primarily infects the throat. In the days of the Talmud, it was feared as one of the most horrible of maladies, a disease that often leads to a ghastly death.”
There are three diseases that might fit the description of askara: diphtheria, epiglottitis and quinsy. They also fit the description of another talmudic condition called sironechi (סרונכי). The great scholar of talmudic medicine Julius Preuss wrote that “it is likely that the illness known as serunke or sirvanke is similar to the sickness askara.” We have discussed sironechi elsewhere, and Preuss was correct; from their descriptions it is simply not possible to distinguish askara from sironechi. So what are the possibilities?
Diphtheria
Child infected with diphtheria. Photo from the CDC.
Diphtheria is caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Infection leads to weakness and fever, followed by swelling in the throat which gradually becomes covered in a thick grey membrane. If the choking doesn't kill the victim, toxins released by the bacteria may finish him off. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in 1921 there were over 200,000 cases of diphtheria in the US, and over 15,000 deaths. Diphtheria is still found in the developing world, especially in parts of Africa and India, and the World Health Organization estimates that there were over 7,000 cases worldwide in 2014.
Like most physicians in the US, I've never seen a case (or met someone who has seen a case, or met someone who has met someone...) because, thanks to widespread vaccination, the disease here has been almost completely eradicated. Diphtheria may certainly kill its victim by suffocation, so it is a reasonable choice to identify this with askara.
EPIGLOTTITIS
Although none of the English translations suggest epiglottis as a possible translation for askara, it is an infection that certainly may fit. The disease is most commonly caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b, and results in swelling of the epiglottis, which is a flap of tissue that covers the larynx (also known to non-medically trained personnel as the voice box). It is your epiglottis that moves over the voice box every time you swallow, preventing food from entering your trachea and lungs. (We will do a deep dive into topic of the epiglottis next week.) In acute epiglottitis, that flap of skin and the surrounding tissues may become swollen to such a degree that breathing becomes impossible, and the victim suffocates. Thankfully, this disease is now extremely unusual in developed countries since there is an effective vaccine against it. In fact I can't recall having seen a single case of it. Because of the way in which the disease causes the airway to become occluded, epiglottis is also a good candidate for the condition described as askara.
QUINSY
Quinsy is an uncommonly used word that refers to an inflammation of the tonsils. It is a complication of what Americans tend to call Strep throat, and what I grew up in London calling tonsillitis. It is most commonly caused by a bacteria known as Group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus, and most of you reading this will have had “strep throat” or seen it in a family member. Today it is easily treated with antibiotics, but one of its rare complications is a peri-tonsillar abscess, sometimes called quinsy. In this condition an abscess forms at the back of the mouth in the tonsils, which bulge forward. When this occurs, the treatment is to lance the abscess. I've treated hundreds of cases of strep throat and many cases of peri-tonsillar abscess, and the condition never causes suffocation - though it could in theory. So this makes it a possible but unlikely candidate as the condition known as askara (or sinonechi for that matter).
BUT NOT CROUP
One thing is certain. Askara is not croup, which is good news for those of you with young children, since it is a common disease during these winter months. Croup is a viral infection of the trachea and bronchi, and leads to a horrible barking cough and some asthma-like symptoms. It is a self-resolving condition, and the symptoms are easily treated by taking the child out into the cold air, or into the bathroom where a shower is giving off steam. Either way it is very, very, very, unlikely to lead to a life threatening condition. So askara is not croup.
“No case of diphtheria is unattended by danger. However mild the case may seem at the commencement, death may end it. Never be off your guard.”
Pity the Poor Children
Whatever it is might be called today, askara was a terrible disease that was especially deadly in children. So much so that according to the Talmud, the danger from this disease is hinted at in the very opening words of the Torah that describes creation.
בראשית א, יד
וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים יְהִי מְאֹרֹת בִּרְקִיעַ הַשָּׁמַיִם לְהַבְדִּיל בֵּין הַיּוֹם וּבֵין הַלָּיְלָה וְהָיוּ לְאֹתֹת וּלְמוֹעֲדִים וּלְיָמִים וְשָׁנִים׃
God said, “Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate day from night; they shall serve as signs for the set times—the days and the years.”
Rashi makes the following comment on this verse:
יהי מארת. חָסֵר וָי"ו כְּתִיב, עַל שֶׁהוּא יוֹם מְאֵרָה לִפֹּל אַסְכָּרָה בַּתִּינוֹקוֹת, הוּא שֶׁשָּׁנִינוּ בְּד' הָיוּ מִתְעַנִּים עַל אַסְכָּרָה שֶׁלֹּא תִפֹּל בַּתִּינוֹקוֹת
The word is written without the ו after the א (so that it may be read מארת, cursed), because it is a cursed day when children are liable to suffer from croup. In reference to this we read (in Taanit 27b): On the fourth day of the week they used to fast to avert croup from the children
Rashi here is referencing the Talmud in Taanit (27b), which describes the tasks of the townspeople who remained behind when their local Cohanim went to serve in the Temple in Jerusalem. These non-priests had a very specific askara-oriented task:
ואנשי מעמד מתכנסין לבית הכנסת ויושבין ד' תעניות בשני בשבת בשלישי ברביעי ובחמישי בשני על יורדי הים בשלישי על הולכי מדברות ברביעי על אסכרא שלא תיפול על התינוקות
And meanwhile, the members of the non-priestly watch remained in their towns and would assemble in the synagogue and observe four fasts: On Monday of that week, on Tuesday, on Wednesday, and on Thursday. On Monday they would fast for seafarers, that they should be rescued from danger, as the sea was created on Monday. On Tuesday they would fast for those who walk in the desert, as the dry land was created on Tuesday. On Wednesday they would fast over croup, that it should not befall the children…
Yes, children are at greater risk
Whatever the precise agent, it is interesting to note that there is good reason to especially fear these diseases in children. This is because, proportionally, the trachea of a child is of much lower diameter than it is in an adult. As a consequence, the same amount of soft tissue swelling around the trachea will threaten the airway of a child far more rapidly. So, for example, “1 mm of swelling in the normally 4-5mm diameter of the trachea of the newborn will reduce the cross sectional area by 75% and will increase the resistance to airflow sixteen-fold. In comparison, the same 1mm of swelling in am adult would decrease the cross-sectional area of the trachea by only 44% and would increase the resistance to airflow by only threefold.” Askara was a child killer.
Askera as the punishment for Lashon Hara- and a lot else besides
Elsewhere in the Talmud, askara is described as the result of the sin of speaking gossip, known as lashon hara. But it also occurs because of many other sins:
שבת לג, א–ב
תנו רבנן אסכרה באה לעולם על המעשר רבי אלעזר ברבי יוסי אומר על לשון הרע אמר רבא ואיתימא רבי יהושע בן לוי מאי קראה והמלך ישמח באלהים יתהלל כל הנשבע בו כי יסכר פי דוברי שקר
כשנכנסו רבותינו לכרם ביבנה היה שם רבי יהודה ורבי אלעזר ברבי יוסי ורבי שמעון נשאלה שאלה זו בפניהם מכה זו מפני מה מתחלת בבני מעיים וגומרת בפה נענה רבי יהודה ברבי אלעאי ראש המדברים בכל מקום ואמר אף על פי שכליות יועצות ולב מבין ולשון מחתך פה גומר נענה רבי אלעזר ברבי יוסי ואמר מפני שאוכלין בה דברים טמאין דברים טמאים סלקא דעתך אלא שאוכלין בה דברים שאינן מתוקנים נענה רבי שמעון ואמר בעון ביטול תורה
The Sages taught: Askara comes to the world as punishment for neglecting to separate tithes. Rabbi Elazar, son of Rabbi Yosei, says: Askara comes as punishment for slander…
Rabbi Elazar, son of Rabbi Yosei, responded and said: This disease ends in the mouth because one eats non-kosher things. They immediately wondered about this: Does it enter your mind to say that askara is caused by eating non-kosher food? Are those who eat non-kosher food so numerous? Rather, it comes as a punishment for eating foods that were not ritually prepared, i.e., were not tithed. Rabbi Shimon responded and said: This disease comes as a punishment for the sin of dereliction in the study of Torah.
According to the Rav Nachman (Yevamot 62b), the 24,000 students of Rabbi Akiva who died in plague died from askara, as did the spies who brought back a bad report about the Land of Israel (Sotah 35a).
The Death of Rabbi Meir Shapira, Founder of the daF Yomi Program
In 1994, Professor Prof. Yeshayahu Nitzan from the Faculty of Life Sciences at Bar Ilan University wrote about the death of the founder of the Daf Yomi cycle, Rabbi Meir Shapira of Lublin.
כדאי להזכיר, כי הרב מאיר שפירא ז'ל מלובלין, חמייסד וראש ישיבת ’חכמי לובלין’ המפורסמת, והוגה רעיון לימוד ’הדף היומי’, נפטר לפתע בגיל 47 מדיפתריה
We should note that Rabbi Meir Shapira of Lublin, of blessed memory, who founded and led the famous Yeshivah “Chachmei Lublin,” and who established the “daf hayomi” cycle of study, died suddenly, at the age of 47, from diphtheria.
Although Professor Nitzan is an expert in infectious diseases, he did not cite any supporting evidence, and other sources (also without citing supporting evidence) claim that Rabbi Shapira died from typhus. There is an apparent eyewitness account of the death of Rabbi Shapira, which was written by his student, Yehoshua Baumol. Baumol, who was murdered in the Holocaust, wrote his account in Yiddish in 1934, a year after the episode. The manuscript was translated into English by Charles Wengrow and published by Feldheim in 1994 as A Blaze in the Darkening Gloom: The Life of Rav Meir Shapiro. Here is an excerpt.
The hour of night grew later and later. On a piece of paper he asked that he be shown all the prescriptions which the doctors had written. When they were handed him, he went through them and selected the one for a preparation to cleanse the throat and the respiratory organs and he asked that a new supply be gotten for him. Every few minutes he kept washing his hands while his mind was obviously immersed in distant thoughts. The evident struggle that he had to make to draw breath was heartbreaking. One could feel the frightful, racking agony that he had to undergo to try to get a bit of air into his lungs, and try as he would, he kept failing, because the channels were blocked.
The respiratory distress that Rabbi Shapira experienced could have been due to any number of conditions and there is nothing in this account that points to any specific etiology. It could have been pneumonia, or typhus, of diphtheria, or even influenza. If it were diphtheria, that would mean that the founder of the Daf Yomi movement died from a disease that the Talmud associates with a punishment for lashon hara or eating non-tithed foods, or, most inappropriately of all, a dereliction in the study of Torah.
There is a lesson here. Ascribing a spiritual meaning to personal difficulties is a long Jewish tradition. But one should never ascribe such meaning to explain tragedies that may befall others. Rabbi Shapira might have agreed.
[Mostly a repost from Berachot 8.]
